The word torah comes from the Hebrew word yarah, which means "to throw or cast forth."  Thus, Torah is best translated as "teaching."  It has often been mistranslated as "law."  Although the Torah includes commandments (mitzvot) and guidelines for how to live life, the word "law" does not capture the spirit, motivation, and even joy that many Jews find in learning and living the Torah.

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Torah in its most narrow sense refers to the first five books of the Bible, which Jews believe that God revealed to Moses on Mt. Sinai.  Every word, even every letter, are said to have been revealed by God.  This was the Written Torah.  Yet the true meaning of the words of the Torah, how it should be lived out in everyday life, and how it applies to the modern context are all aspects of ongoing interpretation and discussion -- not to deviate from the written Torah that was given at Sinai, but to understand, rediscover, and apply it anew as new situations arise.  Thus, the entire body of Jewish teachings that comment upon the Written Torah make up a more expansive definition of the same word.

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As a body of teaching, the Torah must be studied -- not just as book-learning, but as a way of life.  A student is guided by his teacher in memorizing the teachings and learning the techniques to comprehend underlying principles so that those teachings can be extended to changing circumstances.  Thus, the teacher-student relationship is key to proper interpretation.  In times past, a student (or disciple, to use the Latin word) would attach himself to a teacher (or rabbi, the Hebrew word for master).  The disciple would serve the master, and in exchange, he would learn from him -- even to the point of observing the master's every move, since this was part of how life should be lived.  Some (probably humorous) stories in the Talmud even mention students who observed their masters during the most intimate of circumstances, such as defecating and lovemaking, in order to extrapolate some meaning from the way in which these things were done -- since every act of the rabbi was understood as living out the Torah as embodied word.  It is the duty of every Jew to become the living embodiment of the Torah.  (This sheds light on the Christian scripture that refers to Jesus, a Jew, by saying "the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.")

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Jewish teaching is composed of layers upon layers of commentary.  The Oral Torah was the original commentary upon the Written Torah.  The Oral Torah is said to have been given by God to Moses alongside the Written Torah as the practical interpretation of it.  It can be historically traced back to at least the time of Ezra, when the Soferim (scribes, "men of the book") needed to explain to Jews returning from the Exile in Babylon how to go about living their lives as God commanded, but in a way that fit their new situation.  Regardless of how far back it actually extended, it was certainly well established before the turn of the common era.  Experts in Torah used a method of interpretation known as midrash to draw out the points that people needed to understand and make these relatable to their daily lives.  Midrash can be of two types:  halakhah (literally, "the way one goes") refers to norms, procedures, or standards for living, while aggadah provides the vision, inspiration, aspiration, and values that breathe life into the halakhah.   Halakhic standards often go beyond the letter of the law so as to provide "a fence around the Torah" so that one may not accidentally break a commandment.

 

Christians may recognize that Jesus, who was referred to as "rabbi" and "teacher" by his disciples, taught by using midrashic technique.  An example of his use of aggadah may be found in his many parables -- stories made to explain deeper truths.  An example of his use of halakhah can be seen in the Sermon on the Mount, where he interprets the Written Torah for the people and builds a fence around the Torah by saying such things as this:

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You have heard that it was said to the people long ago, "You shall not murder, and anyone who murders will be subject to judgment." But I tell you that anyone who is angry with a brother or sister will be subject to judgment.  Again, anyone who says to a brother or sister, "Raca," is answerable to the court.  And anyone who says, "You fool!" will be in danger of the fire of hell....You have heard that it was said, "You shall not commit adultery."  But I tell you that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart.  If your right eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. And if your right hand causes you to stumble, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell.... (Matt. 5:21ff)

 

When it eventually became necessary to write down the Oral Torah, its key points were compiled in the Mishnah.  Later, the Gemara (commentaries on the Mishnah) were also put into written form.  The Mishnah and Gemara together comprise the Talmud.  Thus, we begin to see the layers upon layers of commentary and interpretation of the words revealed to Moses by God.  All of it seeks to rediscover and apply anew the original revelation; thus all of it is Torah.